Welcome to the Gift of Tongues Project.
Index
- Purpose
- Introduction and Summaries
- Catholic Tongues
- Protestant Tongues
- The Tongues of Corinth
- Tongues as a Prayer Language
- External Videos and Publications on Tongues
The Purpose of the Gift of Tongues Project:
- Locate source literature on the subject
- digitize the original texts
- translate into English with critical notes
- trace the perception of tongues in the church from inception until modern times.
Introduction and Summaries
Speaking in tongues quiz
How much do you know about speaking in tongues? Take this quiz and find out.
Introductory Notes to the Gift of Tongues Project
The nature and purpose behind the Gift of Tongues Project and its methodology.
The Worldwide impact of the Pentecostal movement and speaking in tongues
This article shows how Renewalism (Pentecostals, Charismatics, and Third-Wavers) is the fastest growing movement in Christianity. This widespread influence requires more careful attention to their tongues doctrine.
A Catholic History of Tongues: 30 to 1748 AD.
Early, Medieval and pre-Reformation Christianity is full of references to tongues speaking or doctrinal addresses about Pentecost. See the infographic for more information.
A History of Unknown Tongues in the English Bible.
The term unknown tongues is an English Bible tradition that traces back to the Reformation. See the infographic on how this transpired.
Cessationism, Miracles, and Tongues Infographic
Theologians and thinkers throughout history have vacillated on the idea that miracles, including tongues, have ceased. This infographic follows the theory throughout its courses.
The Tongues of Corinth infographic
The emphasis here is the connection of speaking in tongues with the ancient Jewish liturgy and the later evolution of this function in the Church. A web-interactive page. However, it takes a long time to load. Best viewed on a desktop computer.
Language or Tongues? The semantic battleground
Struggling with the terms language and tongues and which one is the most suitable to use for the Gift of Tongues Project
The Renewalist Response to the Gift of Tongues Project
The various responses and lack thereof by the Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Third Wave Communities to the Gift of Tongues Project.
Glossolalia and Pentecostal Tongues Infographics
These are on the radar but have not been started.
Catholic Tongues
The Christian Doctrine of Tongues from 100 to 300 AD
As you will see, there are only a few but important references during this time. This lack of literature during this period is a problem in every realm of Christian studies. The literature available on the subject greatly increases shortly after.
Tertullian
Tertullian is credited for introducing the Greek-based framework of Christianity into the Latin world. His writings established the fundamentals of Western Christianity.
Irenaeous
He was a disciple of Polycarp, who himself was apparently a disciple of John the Evangelist. Best known for his work among the people of southern France in the first century.
Origen
Origen had an incredible combination of both faith and learning that was unequalled in his era. Almost every movement looks to Origen for supporting their view of tongues. The following article explores these different opinions and looks to the actual sources to find which one is correct.
The Christian Doctrine of Tongues from 301 to 476 AD
These centuries bring a wealth of information and commentary about the doctrine of tongues. Almost everyone who comes to this page is amazed at the amount available. This section stops at the iconic year when the Roman empire falls.
The text of De Trinitate
This text was written by Didymus of Alexandria (controversy exists over the actual authorship) who was a disciple of Origen and considered one of the most learned men in Alexandria.
Pachomius
Pachomius, a Coptic Christian who lived in Egypt, was a highly revered leader and founder of Cenobitic Monasticism—a stress on communal spiritual communities rather than individual isolation.
Epiphanius on the Gift of Tongues
Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, is considered one of the strongest apologists for the Christian faith. Perhaps, too strong on many occasions. The text attributed to him on tongues greatly clarifies the Corithian conflict.
A Commentary on the Problem Tongues of Corinth attributed to Epiphanius.
Technical Notes about the Epiphanius Text on the Problem Tongues of Corinth.
The Epiphanius Text on the Tongues of Corinth in English.
The Greek Epiphanius Text on the Problem Tongues of Corinth.
The Latin Epiphanius Text on the Tongues of Corinth.
Cyril of Jerusalem
Cyril of Jerusalem was a theologian and also a Bishop of Jerusalem. His legacy has left a detailed note on what happened at Pentecost.
Gregory of Nyssa
Gregory of Nyssa, along with his brother, Basil of Caesarea, and compatriot, Gregory Nazianzus, formed a fourth-century theological powerhouse.
Gregory Nazianzus
No author on the tongues debate has created more controversy than Gregory Nazianzus. His coverage caused the longest running debate in the history of the doctrine.
Gregory Nazianzus’ on the doctrine of Tongues.
Introduction to Gregory Nazianzus’ contribution to the tongues doctrine.
Gregory Nazianzus’ Oration 41:15-16.
A source Greek text on Oration 41:15-16
An English Translation of Oration 41:15-16.
Translated by Alex Poulos
Gregory Nazianzus’ Oration 41:15-16 in the Latin
Several Latin texts side-by-side on Oration 41:15-16
Gregory Nazianzus’ Oration 41:15-16 in the Syriac
An English Translation of Rufinus’ fifth century Latin of Gregory’s “On Pentecost” 41:15-16.
Is Tyrannius Rufinus a Reliable Translator?
Nazianzus’ Tongues of Pentecost Paradox.
Maximus the Confessor’s seventh century Greek text and commentary regarding Gregory’s On Pentecost 41:16.
By Alex Poulos
Nicetas of Serrone’s 11th century Greek text and commentary regarding Gregory’s On Pentecost 41:15. and 41:16.
By Alex Poulos
- See also Michael Psellos below.
John Chrysostom
One of the most quoted authors of the fourth century by contemporary researchers, Chrysostom was an eloquent speaker and writer who was straightforward rather than many of contemporaries who spoke in allegories. His height of popularity was in the Antioch Cathedral, Syria.
Augustine, Bishop of Hippo
Augustine is considered one of the greatest writers of Western Civilization. His coverage on the nature and purpose of tongues is the most expansive of any ancient author.
Cyril of Alexandria
Leader of the Patriarchate of Alexandria during its greatest influence within the Roman Empire, Cyril of Alexandria had a far reaching effect on the development of the Christian movement—whether good or bad are questions forever debated. However, the works attributed to him give a glimpse into the evolution of tongues within the Alexandrian church.
An introduction to this Church Father and the reasons for translating and analyzing his works.
Cyril of Alexandria on Tongues: Zephaniah.
Cyril of Alexandria on Tongues: Acts.
Cyril of Alexandria on Pentecost: problems with the Acts fragment.
Cyril of Alexandria on Tongues: I Corinthians.
The Mysterious αναπληρών of I Corinthians 14:16.
Cyril of Alexandria on Tongues: Conclusion.
The Greek and parallel Latin texts of Cyril of Alexandria.
Basil of Seleucia
This fifth-century Church Father has an account of Pentecost that is very detailed and helpful in understanding the doctrine during this era.
The Ambrosiaster Text on I Corinthians chapters 12-14
An important earlier Latin-Christian text on the writings of Paul that started in the fourth century and evolved for many centuries later.
The Christian Doctrine of Tongues: 477–999 AD
The authors during this period wrote some carefully thought-out pieces on the doctrine of tongues.
John of Damascus
He was a Syrian monk and priest known not only for his theological views, but for writing hymns and music. He held a knowledge of many fields including law and philosophy.
The Venerable Bede
The only native of Great Britain to be named the high honour of Doctor of the Church by the Catholic authorities. He deserves the title. His writing style is both technical and easy to read.
Andrew the Fool
An interesting character from the Eastern Church who performed insanity as a way to overcome the vices of this world. There was one event where he is attributed to speaking in tongues—at a host party of a friend’s father. The tongues interlude unfolds in a way we are not used to but this doctrine does have its oddities.
The Christian Doctrine of Tongues: 1000–1259+ AD
Michael Psellos
Psellos was a writer, philosopher, politician, and master of the Greek language. He was an intellectual pompous genius. His coverage of Nazianzus’ tongues paradox shows all his ability in explaining tongues in detail. The neglect of his work, along with most in this era, is a big oversight by academics and reference materials.
Psellos on the Christian Doctrine of Tongues Intro.
An English Translation of Michael Psellos text on Pentecost.
Technical Notes on the Psellos Translation.
A Commentary and Analysis of Psellos’ Tongues of Pentecost.
Michael Psellos 11th century Greek text and commentary regarding Gregory’s On Pentecost.
By Alex Poulos
Psellos on the doctrine of Tongues in the Original Greek.
Thomas Aquinas
If Renewalists read Aquinas, they would find a much more detailed framework for supernatural living than what they have developed today. Aquinas had the ability to collate and understand ancient material and present it in a cohesive manner appetizing for the Western critical mind. His conclusions still hold value for today.
Thomas Aquinas on the Miracle of Tongues Intro.
Aquinas on Psalm 54:9.
- A translation of his Lectures on I Corinthians
The Latin texts of Psalm 54:9 and Corinthians attributed to Aquinas on Tongues.
Summa Theologica, On the Grace of Tongues in English, IIa IIae q. 176
The Latin version of On the Grace of Tongues
Note: Scroll two-thirds down the page to reach QUAESTIO 176Thomas Aquinas on the Miracle of Tongues.
The final analysis and conclusion of all his works.
1260–1700+ AD
The Catholic Church really had a thing for speaking in tongues during the late Medieval Age. The following examples show the popularity of this doctrine. Some accounts refer to persons all the way back to the New Testament. I think these early references are doubtful but accurately describe Late Medieval perceptions.
Introduction to Late Medieval texts on Speaking in Tongues
An introduction to the many invaluable texts on the subject. However, we must proceed to read these accounts as perceptions which may or may not be realistic.
St. Anthony of Padua
St. Anthony was a Portugese Franciscan Friar known for his powerful oratory skills and compassion for the poor.
St. Matthew Speaking in Tongues
Like I previously wrote, doubtful this is historically true, but accurate as a Late Medieval perception.
St. Patiens
St. Patiens was one of the first Bishops of the city of Metz, France, around 150 AD. This begins the story of speaking in tongues, internal politics, sainthood and business.
St. Norbert of Xanten
Translation and analysis of St. Norbert of Xanten. A 12th-century Christian who is claimed to have spoken in tongues.
Tongues speaking in sixth-century Wales: St. David, Teilo, and Padarn
St. David, Padarn, and Teilo are important figures in the history of Wales. They provide a literary bridge for the establishment of Christianity in that region.
Vincent Ferrer
Ferrer was an itinerant Dominican missionary that traveled extensively throughout Europe. He only spoke and preached in his native Valencian language but the people miraculously understood it in their own language.
Francis Xavier
The most controversial subject, and an embarassing one, on speaking in tongues in Catholic history. His legend became the symbol of Protestant attacks of rampant corruption. The legend is interesting and the reality is different. The following is an examination of both sides.
1700s
Pope Benedict the XIV
Pope Bendict the XIV was one of the most enlightened and intellectually astute leaders the Catholic Church has ever had. In response to the Xavier tongues crisis almost 200 years previous, he prepared and wrote one of the most in-depth treatise on the doctrine of tongues ever.
Treatise on the Gift of Tongues as a Category for Sainthood: English Translation.
Treatise on the Gift of Tongues as a Category for Sainthood: Original Latin.
The stringent requirements that he set for miraculously identifying speaking in tongues seriously curtailed the rite in the Catholic Church.
Women throughout Catholic history and speaking in tongues
This topic should be included here but awaits research. The Gift of Tongues: Women’s Xenoglossia in the Later Middle Ages, by Christine F. Cooper-Rompato, is an excellent book covering this perspective.
A history of tongues in the Protestant Movement
The doctrine of tongues from 1500 to 1830 AD
How the Protestant Movement started redefining speaking in tongues and pushed it into a new direction.
The unknown tongues controversy
The idea of speaking in unknown tongues, and more specifically, unknown tongues is a tradition linked to European, and especially English Bible translation tradition. The following examines how this phrase first began and then dominated our English Bibles.
The Unknown Tongues in the English Bible.
The Unknown Tongues in the English Bible Part 2.
A technical look at comparing different Biblical translations.
Jean Calvin
Luther may have started the Protestant movement but Calvin gave structure to it. This early Protestant leader clarified what speaking in tongues meant in his age.
Jean Calvin’s Commentary on I Corinthians
Commentaires De M. Iehan Calvin sur toutes les Epistres de l’Apostre Sainct Paul.
The original French/Latin 1565 print edition. I Corinthians 14 can be found on page 293ff.
Conyers Middleton
Middleton railed against the mystical excesses of his age and popularized the notion that miracles had ceased. Not only this but first connected the Montanists with contemporary hyper-supernaturalism.
Free Inquiry
— a masterpiece on the arguments outlining miracles and why the supernatural gifts displayed by early Christians have ceased. Therefore, the christian doctrine of tongues is a moot point in contemporary practice.
John Lightfoot
This seventeenth century English churchman and scholar had the unusual gift of reading and researching Jewish literature—unheard of in that geographic area at the time. His coverage of the Corinthian speaking in tongues takes both Church and Jewish literature into account. He produced a commentary on the subject unrivalled for almost 300 years.
Lightfoot on the Problem Tongues of Corinth.
A digitization and analysis of the well thought out work done in the 17th century by John Lightfoot on the Problem Tongues of Corinth.
The Camisards (18th century France)
The Camisards were a Huguenot (French Protestant) group in the south-central reaches of France. There was heavy persecution against the Camisards and one of the reactions was the perception that many were divinely inspired to speak in tongues.
The Camisards, tongues and prophecy
An analysis of the texts related to the Camisards speaking in tongues.
Le Théatre Sacré des Cévennes ou Regit de Diverses Merveilles.
The original 1707 Version by Maximilien Mission. In French only.
Les Prophètes Protestants. Réimpression de l’ouvrage intitulé, Le Théatre Sacré des Cévennes, ou Régit des Diverses Merveilles.
An updated 1847 French version of the original text published by Maximilien Mission in 1707.
The Irvingites
The Irvingite movement and its universal impact
How an early 19th century group led by Edward Irving renewed interest in this gift. This event is the primary source of all Protestant theologies later developed on the subject.
1831-1900: The Doctrine of Glossolalia
Tongues as glossolalia is by far the most popular definition of speaking in tongues today. However, it is a recent addition to the christian doctrine of tongues. It is only 200 years old. This section deals entirely with the birth and rise of the Doctrine of Glossolalia and its effect on modern interpretation.
Introduction to the History of Glossolalia
An examination on why the traditional interpretations of the miracle of tongues all but died and was replaced by tongues as ecstasy or ecstatic utterance.
A History of Glossolalia: Origins
The early pioneers of the new definition of tongues as ecstasy, utterance and frenzy, the influence they had, how it spread and when the noun ‘glossolalia’ entered the English language.
A History of Glossolalia: Did it exist before 1879?
This article attempts to find an answer to a difficult question: did Ecstasy and Glossolalia exist in pre-1879 Primary Source Literature about tongues? The answer is no, and I will show you why.
A History of Glossolalia: Objections
19th century objections to the miracle of tongues being simply an ecstatic utterance instead of the traditional definition of foreign languges.
A History of Glossolalia: Patristic Citation
Comparing modern usage of the Patristic writers on the gift of tongues against the historical record. The answer is that too few are cited, too many ignored, and major sources totally overlooked.
A Critical Look at Tongues and Montanism
A debate between two scholars on the influence of Montanism on the christian doctrine of tongues and an analysis of Eusebius’ critical text on the subject.
Eusebius on Montanism: the Latin and Greek text
The actual Greek texts, critical to understanding the connection between tongues and Montanism
Rohdes, “Psyche: the Cult of Souls”
An instrumental work on Greek pagan religions. It does not directly address tongues, but can be inferred and is cited by higher criticists in this manner.
Delphi Prophetesses and Christian tongues
A close look at the Delphi prophetesses and the proposed connection to the christian doctrine of tongues. This exploration goes deep into the texts themselves and the people behind it.
Why Ecclesiastical Writings have been neglected on this subject
The neglect of the ancient ecclesiastical writers is the primary source of ignorance on the history of tongues. These two articles explore why this neglect happened in the first place. The modern rite of speaking in tongues is one of the many consequences of this state.
The Doctrine of Cessationism – a doctrine that reappears throughout Christian history
Cessationism: the idea that the supernatural age of miracles died out after the establishment of the church. It is an old doctrine but reappears with a more rigorous and structured framework within the early Protestant movement.
Cessationism, Miracles, and Tongues Infographic
Theologians and thinkers throughout history have vacillated on the idea that miracles, including tongues, have ceased. This infographic follows the theory throughout its courses.
Cessationism, Miracles, and Tongues: Part 1
Introduction and General Summary to this series.
Cessationism, Miracles, and Tongues: Part 2
The medieval world was steeped in magic and miracle both in Catholic and Protestant circles. The Protestant movement and philosophers took to remedying this excess.
Cessationism, Miracles, and Tongues: Part 3
The question of miracles from Martin Luther to the Church of England.
Cessationism, Miracles, and Tongues: Part 4
The evolution of cessationism from the 1800s until today.
Note: other early Church writers push for partial cessationism where miracles such as tongues ceased while others perpetuated. This doctrine is an important part of Christian history that no one should easily dismiss. Cessationism is entirely rejected by Pentecostals and Charismatics. Catholics largely ignore the modern version because it is a debate largely confined to the Protestant communities.
1901 onwards: Pentecostal Tongues
The Gift of Tongues Project ends determining how the christian doctrine of tongues shifted from the supernatural ability to speak or hear a foreign language to glossolalia, ecstasy, or a private prayer language. The goal is not to detail every Pentecostal or Charismatic movement, only why the change occurred. There may occur many more meanings or slight modifications in either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements since the 1930s. The GOT Project is unconcerned about these as the goals of the project are met.
Charles Parham on Speaking in Tongues
Charles Parham is considered one of the fathers of Pentecostalism and associated with the first Pentecostal style outbreak of speaking in tongues.
The Azusa Street Revival
The Azusa Street Revival describes the perceived outbreak of the Holy Spirit in Los Angeles, California.
The Apostolic Faith Newspaper on the Azusa Street Revival.
A digitized searchable version of the first page.
The Apostolic Faith Newspaper.
An image only edition of the first volume published in 1906. The real thing (not digitized for keyword search). The complete publications of The Apostolic Faith Newspaper can be found at the Pentecostal Archives. One of Azusa’s most significant manifestations was the gift of tongues—then the ability to supernaturally speak a foreign language. Not convinced? See their actual Newspaper and other source materials.
Early Pentecostal Tongues: Notes and Quotes.
A digest of quotes from early Pentecostal and holiness periodicals from 1880 to 1930 on speaking in tongues.
Modern Pentecostal Books on Speaking in Tongues.
A short list of contemporary Pentecostal books on speaking in tongues.
Early Pentecostal Books on Speaking in Tongues.
A brief examination and listing of early Pentecostal Books about speaking in tongues.
V. P. Simmons on the Church History of Tongues.
A historical portrait of tongues from the first to twentieth century by one of the earliest Pentecostal writers.
A New Kind of Tongues.
How the definition of tongues changed somewhere between 1906 and 1907. A summary and link to Gary B. McGee’s excellent article on the Pentecostal movement in the late 1800s and beyond.
Missionary Tongues: T. B. Barratt and the Soon Coming King.
Author Geir Lie, “an educator and archivist of Northern European Pentecostal history” reflects on the missionary tongues of early Pentecostalism.
Garr’s Missionary Crisis on Speaking in Tongues
A copy of the letter from Alfred Garr to A. A. Boddy, editor of the early Pentecostal magazine, Confidence, on why Garr’s supernatural tongue of Bengali did not happen when he arrived to India.
A history of Glossolalia in the Pentecostal Movement
Part 1: Early Pentecostal Tongues Intro.
An introduction to this series.
Part 2: Early Pentecostal Tongues in Crisis.
Documenting how early Pentecostals found themselves in both a personal and theological crisis. They couldn’t speak the foreign language they thought they miraculously could. Outsiders mocked them for speaking gibberish.
Part 3: Solutions to the Pentecostal Crisis.
Uncovering how they solved this crisis.
Part 4: Pentecostals, Tongues and Higher Criticism.
Tracing the sources Pentecostals used for solving their tongues dilemma.
Part 5: The Pentecostal Rewrite of the History of Speaking in Tongues
How Pentecostals built their historical framework for their doctrine of tongues from Higher Criticism literature–a necessary but unlikely relationship.
Corinth from Jewish liturgical Perspectives
Defining and understanding the tongues of Corinth through ancient literature.
The Tongues of Corinth infographic
The emphasis here is the connection of speaking in tongues with the ancient Jewish liturgy and the later evolution of this function in the Church. A web-interactive page. However, it takes a long time to load. Best viewed on a desktop computer.
Introduction to the Tongues of Corinth Series
Introductory remarks and how the Jewish perspective adds much needed clues in understanding Paul’s reference to speaking and praying in tongues.
The Role of Hebrew in the Jewish-Aramaic World.
A detailed look at the role of the Hebrew language in the faith system of ancient Jews whose native tongue was Aramaic.
Greek, Hellenic Judaism and the Problem Tongues of Corinth
The influence of the Greek language and culture on the Jewish religious system.
Hebrew as the First Language of Mankind
How Jews, and later Christians, believed that Hebrew was so sacred that it was not only the personal language of the Divine, but also the first language spoken by mankind.
The Public Reader, the Synagogue, and Corinth
A detailed look into the Jewish rite of reading, speaking, interpreting and how it relates to the Corinthian tongues controversy.
The Public Reader in the Church
A brief history of the public reader in the Church from inception until the thirteenth century.
The Language of Instruction in the Corinthian Church
The role of Hebrew, Aramaic, or both as the language of religious instruction in the earliest Corinthian Church.
Lightfoot on the Problem Tongues of Corinth
A digitization and analysis of 17th century John Lightfoot’s work on the Problem Tongues of Corinth.
The Mysterious Anapleron of I Corinthians 14:16
A look at this mysterious word in the English Bible of I Corinthians and its rich meaning in the Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian worlds.
Jacob the Min
A 2nd century Jewish follower of Christ mentioned in the Talmud gives a small clue about the Jewish liturgy adapted in the Christian rite. Perhaps too small but worth pondering.
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It is highly recommended to read the series on Epiphanius on the tongues of Corinth found in the 300 — 450 AD section of the Gift of Tongues Project under Catholic History. This forms the basis for this series on Corinth.Tongues as a Prayer Language Series
OK, Paul does mention praying in tongues too. Pentecostal readers want more evidence on this subject, so this series is dedicated to answering this question.This series is currently in active development.
Praying in Tongues, Hymns, and More Intro
The introduction and methodology to this series on praying in tongues.
Christianity’s Big Split From Judaism
A recent response to the tongues of Corinth was that Christianity had already split from Judaism and praying in tongues was a completely derived Christian experience. This article is a reply to this argument.
The Testament of Job and Angelic Tongues
An analysis of the Testament of Job, its controversial state on speaking in angelic tongues, and its place in the christian doctrine of tongues.
The Dead Sea Scrolls and Angelic Tongues
An investigative examination into seeing whether the Qumran communities practised speaking in the language of angels.
Other Related Articles/Videos/Publications
Miscellaneous notes on the GOT Project. Important websites and videos by people active inside either the Pentecostal or Charismatic movements. High content publications relating to speaking in tongues.
Thoughts on Ecstasy, Private Revelation, and Prophecy
Ecstasy in traditional Catholic terms was used similar to the Pentecostal doctrine of Spirit Baptism. This is a brief look into the Catholic use of ecstasy in the religious experience.
Kenneth E. Hagin speaking in Tongues.
Kenneth Hagin was a Pentecostal Preacher and considered the father of the Word of Faith movement. His tongues speaking starts around the 7 minute mark.
Reinhard Bonnke speaking in tongues.
A short clip of a crusade meeting with Reinhard Bonnke, a Pentecostal evangelist who focuses on the African continent, and influential for over 72 million conversions.
John MacArthur on Tongues.
John MacArthur, noted author, pastor and host of the radio program called Grace to You. He is a cessationist and one of the most well-known critics of the Charismatic movement.
Tongues and pseudo-science
Speaking in Tongues: Medical Study Proves Holy Spirit’s Existence? Facebook user account required to watch this.
Early Pentecostal perspective
With Signs Following: The Story of the Pentecostal Revival in the Twentieth Century
by Stanley Howard Frodsham – an early Pentecostal historian.Tongues of Fire
Snippets relating to tongues speaking from a late 1800s periodical edited by Frank W. Sandford. Unfortunately, the link is no longer working. If anyone knows where a copy can be located, let me know.
From a Higher Criticism perspective
See Hans Conzelmann’s A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians.
A leading Cessationist Book
John MacArthur’s, Strange Fire: The Danger of Offending the Holy Spirit with Counterfeit Worship
The Gift of Tongues: Women’s Xenoglossia in the Later Middle Ages.
An excellent book on the history of speaking in tongues.
A Scholarly attempt by Charismatics to define tongues.
See Edith Waldvogel and George Williams, A History of Speaking in Tongues, as found in The Charismatic Movement.
From a scientific perspective
G.B Cutten. Speaking with tongues; historically and psychologically considered. New Haven: Yale University Press, (original 1927); Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2007.